System (from Latin Latin or sometimes Roman is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Although often considered a dead language, in view of the fact that it has no native speakers, a small number of scholars can fluently speak it and it continues to be taught in schools and universities and has been, and currently is, used in the process of systēma, in turn from Greek Greek , an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, is the language of the Greeks. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical ancient Greek literature and the New Testament of σύστημα systēma, "whole compounded of several parts or members, system", literary "composition"[1]) is a set of interacting or interdependent entities An entity is something that has a distinct, separate existence, though it need not be a material existence. In particular, abstractions and legal fictions are usually regarded as entities. In general, there is also no presumption that an entity is animate. Entities are used in system developmental models that display communications and internal forming an integrated whole.
The concept of an 'integrated whole' can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships which are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and from relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational regime.
The scientific research field which is engaged in the study of the general properties of systems include systems theory Systems theory is a transdisciplinary approach, which abstracts and considers a system as a set of independent and interacting parts. The main goal is to study general principles of system functioning to be applied for the all types of systems in all fields of research. As a technical and general academic area of study it predominantly refers to, cybernetics Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of the structure of regulatory systems. Cybernetics is closely related to control theory and systems theory. Both in its origins and in its evolution in the second-half of the 20th century, cybernetics is equally applicable to physical and social systems, dynamical systems The dynamical system concept is a mathematical formalization for any fixed "rule" which describes the time dependence of a point's position in its ambient space. Examples include the mathematical models that describe the swinging of a clock pendulum, the flow of water in a pipe, and the number of fish each spring in a lake, thermodynamics In science, thermodynamics is the study of energy conversion between heat and mechanical work, and subsequently the macroscopic variables such as temperature, volume and pressure and complex systems Complex systems is the subject of a diverse variety of sciences and professional practice methods. It is often overshadowed by the representation of natural physical organization with systems of equations, the main subject below. In the study of complex systems that are less usefully represented with equations various other kinds of narratives and. They investigate the abstract properties of the matter and organization, searching concepts and principles which are independent of the specific domain, substance, type, or temporal scales of existence.
Most systems share common characteristics, including:
- Systems have structure Structure is a fundamental if sometimes intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and stability of patterns and relationships of entities. From a child's verbal description of a snowflake, to the detailed scientific analysis of the properties of magnetic fields, the concept of structure is now often an essential, defined by parts and their composition;
- Systems have behavior Behavior, or behaviour , refers to the actions of a system or organism , usually in relation to its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment. It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or, which involves inputs, processing and outputs of material, energy, information, or data;
- Systems have interconnectivity Interconnectivity is a concept that is used in numerous fields such as cybernetics, biology, ecology, network theory, and non-linear dynamics. The concept can be summarized as that all parts of a system interact with and rely on one another simply by the fact that they occupy the same system, and that a system is difficult or sometimes impossible: the various parts of a system have functional as well as structural relationships between each other.
- Systems have by themselves functions or groups of functions
The term system may also refer to a set of rules that governs behavior or structure.
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History
The word system in its meaning here, has a long history which can be traced back to Plato (Philebus), Aristotle (Politics) and Euclid (Elements). It had meant "total", "crowd" or "union" in even more ancient times, as it derives from the verb sunìstemi, uniting, putting together.
In the 19th century the first to develop the concept of a "system" in the natural sciences was the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot who studied thermodynamics In science, thermodynamics is the study of energy conversion between heat and mechanical work, and subsequently the macroscopic variables such as temperature, volume and pressure. In 1824 he studied what he called the working substance (system), i.e. typically a body of water vapor, in steam engines, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (to which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius , was a German physicist and mathematician and is considered one of the central founders of the science of thermodynamics. By his restatement of Sadi Carnot's principle known as the Carnot cycle, he put the theory of heat on a truer and sounder basis. His most important paper, On the mechanical theory of heat, generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings In science and engineering, a system is the part of the universe that is being studied, while the environment is the remainder of the universe that lies outside the boundaries of the system. It is also known as the surroundings, and in thermodynamics, as the reservoir. Depending on the type of system, it may interact with the environment by and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.
One of the pioneers of the general systems theory In systems science, systems theory is an interdisciplinary theory about the nature of complex systems in nature, society, and science, and is a framework by which one can investigate and/or describe any group of objects that work together to produce some result. This could be a single organism, any organization or society, or any electro- was the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy Karl Ludwig von Bertalanffy was an Austrian-born biologist known as one of the founders of general systems theory. Von Bertalanffy grew up in Austria and subsequently worked in Vienna, London, Canada and the USA. In 1945 he introduced models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.[2]
Significant development to the concept of a system was done by Norbert Wiener Norbert Wiener was an American mathematician and Ross Ashby W. Ross Ashby was an English psychiatrist and a pioneer in cybernetics, the study of complex systems. His first name was not used: he was known as Ross Ashby who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems [3][4].
In the 1980s the term complex adaptive system Complex adaptive systems are special cases of complex systems. They are complex in that they are diverse and made up of multiple interconnected elements and adaptive in that they have the capacity to change and learn from experience. The term complex adaptive systems (CAS) was coined at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute (SFI), by John H was coined at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute The Santa Fe Institute is a non-profit research institute located in Santa Fe (New Mexico, United States) and dedicated to the study of complex systems by John H. Holland John Henry Holland is an American scientist and Professor of Psychology and Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. He is a pioneer in complex system and nonlinear science. He is known as the father of genetic algorithms, Murray Gell-Mann Murray Gell-Mann is an American physicist who received the 1969 Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the theory of elementary particles and others.
System concepts
- Environment and boundaries
- Systems theory Systems theory is a transdisciplinary approach, which abstracts and considers a system as a set of independent and interacting parts. The main goal is to study general principles of system functioning to be applied for the all types of systems in all fields of research. As a technical and general academic area of study it predominantly refers to views the world as a complex system of interconnected parts. We scope a system by defining its boundary In topology and mathematics in general, the boundary of a subset S of a topological space X is the set of points which can be approached both from S and from the outside of S. More precisely, it is the set of points in the closure of S, not belonging to the interior of S. An element of the boundary of S is called a boundary point of S. S is; this means choosing which entities are inside the system and which are outside - part of the environment In science and engineering, a system is the part of the universe that is being studied, while the environment is the remainder of the universe that lies outside the boundaries of the system. It is also known as the surroundings, and in thermodynamics, as the reservoir. Depending on the type of system, it may interact with the environment by. We then make simplified representations (models Scientific modelling is the process of generating abstract, conceptual, graphical and/or mathematical models. Science offers a growing collection of methods, techniques and theory about all kinds of specialized scientific modelling. Also a way to read elements easily which have been broken down to the simplest form) of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure Structure is a fundamental if sometimes intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and stability of patterns and relationships of entities. From a child's verbal description of a snowflake, to the detailed scientific analysis of the properties of magnetic fields, the concept of structure is now often an essential and/or the behavior Behavior, or behaviour , refers to the actions of a system or organism , usually in relation to its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment. It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or of the system.
- Natural and man-made systems
- There are natural and man-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their outputs can be interpreted as purposes. Man-made systems are made with purposes that are achieved by the delivery of outputs. Their parts must be related; they must be “designed to work as a coherent entity” - else they would be two or more distinct systems
- Theoretical Framework
- An open system An open system is a system which continuously interacts with its environment. The interaction can take the form of information, energy, or material transfers into or out of the system boundary, depending on the discipline which defines the concept . An open system should be contrasted with the concept of an isolated system which exchanges neither exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings. Most systems are open systems; like a car, coffeemaker, or computer. A closed system In computing a closed system refers to software which the specifications and detail of implementation are kept secret, as opposed to open source systems exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment; like Earth or the project Biosphere2 or 3. An isolated system In the natural sciences an isolated system, as contrasted with an open system, is a physical system that does not interact with its surroundings. It obeys a number of conservation laws: its total energy and mass stay constant. They cannot enter or exit, but can only move around inside. An example is in the study of spacetime, where it is assumed exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment; a theoretical example of which would be the universe.
- Process and transformation process
- A system can also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a process or collection of processes that transforms inputs into outputs. Inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. The concept of input and output here is very broad. E.g., an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination.
- Subsystem
- A subsystem is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a part of a larger system.
- System Model
- A system comprises multiple views such as planning, analysis, design, implementation, deployment, structure Structure is a fundamental if sometimes intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and stability of patterns and relationships of entities. From a child's verbal description of a snowflake, to the detailed scientific analysis of the properties of magnetic fields, the concept of structure is now often an essential, behavior Behavior, or behaviour , refers to the actions of a system or organism , usually in relation to its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment. It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or, input data, and output data views. A system model is required to describe and represent all these multiple views.
- System Architecture
- A system architecture A system architecture or systems architecture is the conceptual design that defines the structure and/or behavior of a system, using one single coalescence model for the description of multiple views such as planning, analysis, design, implementation, deployment, structure Structure is a fundamental if sometimes intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and stability of patterns and relationships of entities. From a child's verbal description of a snowflake, to the detailed scientific analysis of the properties of magnetic fields, the concept of structure is now often an essential, behavior Behavior, or behaviour , refers to the actions of a system or organism , usually in relation to its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment. It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or, input data, and output data views, is a kind of system model.
Types of systems
Evidently, there are many types of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively A quantitative attribute is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured. Measurements of any particular quantitative property are expressed as a specific quantity, referred to as a unit, multiplied by a number. Examples of physical quantities are distance, mass, and time. Many attributes in the social sciences, and qualitatively. For example, with an analysis of urban systems dynamics, [A.W. Steiss] [5] defines five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, where Kenneth D. Bailey Major Kenneth D. Bailey was a United States Marine Corps officer who was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for heroic conduct during action during the Battle of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. He also earned the Silver Star Medal during the initial landing on Tulagi in the Solomon Islands and the Purple Heart [6] defines systems in terms of conceptual A concept is a cognitive unit of meaning—an abstract idea or a mental symbol sometimes defined as a "unit of knowledge," built from other units which act as a concept's characteristics. A concept is typically associated with a corresponding representation in a language or symbology[citation needed] such as a single meaning of a term, concrete Concrete is a construction material composed of cement and other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate made of gravels or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water, and chemical admixtures and abstract systems; either isolated In the natural sciences an isolated system, as contrasted with an open system, is a physical system that does not interact with its surroundings. It obeys a number of conservation laws: its total energy and mass stay constant. They cannot enter or exit, but can only move around inside. An example is in the study of spacetime, where it is assumed, closed In computing a closed system refers to software which the specifications and detail of implementation are kept secret, as opposed to open source systems, or open An open system is a system which continuously interacts with its environment. The interaction can take the form of information, energy, or material transfers into or out of the system boundary, depending on the discipline which defines the concept . An open system should be contrasted with the concept of an isolated system which exchanges neither, Walter F. Buckley Walter Frederick Buckley was an American Professor of sociology. He was among the first to apply concepts from general systems theory (GST), based on the work of Bertalanffy, to sociology. The sociologist was not specifically aligned to either the cybernetics or the general systems movements [7] defines social systems in sociology in terms of mechanical Mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. The discipline has its roots in several ancient civilizations (see History of classical mechanics and Timeline of classical mechanics). During the early modern, organic Organic describes forms, methods and patterns found in living systems such as the organisation of cells, to populations, communities, and ecosystems, and process The term process model is used in various contexts. For example, in business process modeling the enterprise process model is often referred to as the business process model. Process models are core concepts in the discipline of Process Engineering models. Bela H. Banathy Béla Heinrich Bánáthy was a Hungarian linguist, systems scientist and a professor at San José State University and UC Berkeley. Bánáthy was the founder of the White Stag Leadership Development Program whose leadership model was adopted across the United States. He is also founder of the International Systems Institute with its innovative & [8] cautions that with any inquiry into a system that understanding the type of system is crucial and defines Natural and Designed systems.
In offering these more global definitions, the author maintains that it is important not to confuse one for the other. The theorist explains that natural systems include sub-atomic systems, living systems Living systems theory is a general theory about the existence of all living systems, their structure, interaction, behavior and development. This work is created by James Grier Miller, which was intended to formalize the concept of life. According to Miller's original conception as spelled out in his magnum opus Living Systems, a "living, the solar system The Solar System[a] consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by gravity, all of which were formed from the collapse of a giant molecular cloud approximately 4.6 billion years ago. Of the many objects that orbit the Sun, most of the mass is contained within eight relatively solitary planets[e] whose orbits are almost circular and, the galactic system and the Universe. Designed systems are our creations, our physical structures, hybrid systems which include natural and designed systems, and our conceptual knowledge. The human element of organization and activities are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. A key consideration in making distinctions among various types of systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how widely is the freedom to select itself distributed (or concentrated) in the system.
George J. Klir [9] maintains that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes," and defines systems in terms of abstract, real, and conceptual physical systems, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems, et cetera. The interaction between systems and their environments are categorized in terms of relatively closed, and open systems. It seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by us. Important distinctions have also been made between hard and soft systems.[10] Hard systems are associated with areas such as systems engineering, operations research and quantitative systems analysis. Soft systems are commonly associated with concepts developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson through Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) involving methods such as action research and emphasizing participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific," the distinction between them is actually often hard to define.
Cultural system
Main article: Cultural systemA cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of culture. While a cultural system is quite different from a social system, sometimes both systems together are referred to as the sociocultural system. A major concern in the social sciences is the problem of order. One way that social order has been theorized is according to the degree of integration of cultural and social factors.
Economic system
Main article: Economic systemAn economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. The economic system is composed of people, institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property. It addresses the problems of economics, like the allocation and scarcity of resources.
Application of the system concept
Systems modeling is generally a basic principle in engineering and in social sciences. The system is the representation of the entities under concern. Hence inclusion to or exclusion from system context is dependent of the intention of the modeler.
No model of a system will include all features of the real system of concern, and no model of a system must include all entities belonging to a real system of concern.
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Mon, 16 Aug 2010 22:28:34 GMT+00:00
cnet the good: With its advanced all-wheel-drive system , the 2010 Mitsubishi Outlander GT shows remarkable stability in slippery conditions. ...
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Wolfgang Gruener
Wed, 01 Sep 2010 14:25:28 GM
I can't quite recall how often Microsoft has talked about a faster way to shut down its operating . system. . It is part of the pitch of virtually every new operating . system. and it has remained an annoyance that it can take quite some time ...
Q. I know I may be asking much, but it's for a PowerPoint project for school. If you attempt to answer the question, tell me how the respiratory contributes to the o Circulatory System o Nervous System o Skeletal System o Excretory System o Digestive System o Endocrine System & o Immune System You can tell me how it contribute to one, some, or all. All answers, preferably on the simpler descriptive side, will benefit me.
Asked by animeaddict - Fri Nov 21 17:12:08 2008 - - 1 Answers - 0 Comments
A. Circulatory - Oxygen from longs pass into red blood cells (hemoglobin) to carry around the body to other organs/muscles. Actually... thats pretty much the same for all of the systems. Oxygen. Into lungs. Into Blood. Blood carries oxygen to everything. Everything in body needs oxygen.
Answered by tlt2005 - Fri Nov 21 17:16:48 2008
